Chapter 8
Morga: There are many others on the other side of the line, in the tropic of Capricorn, which extend for twelve degrees in south latitude.
Rizal: More exactly from 25º 40' north latitude to 12º south latitude, if we are to include Formosa in the group, which is inhabited likewise by the same race.
***
Morga: The ancients affirmed that each and all of them were desert and uninhabitable...
Rizal: We confess our ignorance with respect to the origin of this belief of Morga, which, as one can observe, was not his belief in the beginning of the first chapter. Already from the time of Diodorus Siculus (first century B. C.), Europe received information of these islands by one Iamboule, a Greek, who went to them (to Sumatra at least), and who wrote afterward the relation of his voyage. He gave therein detailed information of the number of the islands, of their inhabitants, of their writing, navigation, etc. Ptolemy mentions three islands in his geography, which are called Sindæ in the Latin text. They are inhabited by the Aginnatai. Mercator interprets those islands as Celebes, Gilolo, and Amboina. Ptolemy also mentions the island Agathou Daimonos (Borneo), five Baroussai (Mindanao, Leite, Sebu, etc.), three Sabadeibai (the Java group—Iabadiou) and ten Masniolai where a large loadstone was found. Colin surmises that these are the Manilas.
***
Morga: The chiefest and best known are Luzon, Mindoro, Tendaya,
Rizal: It is very difficult now to determine exactly which is this island of Tendaya, called Isla Filipina for some years. According to Father Urdaneta's relations, this island was far to the east of the group, past the meridian of Maluco. Mercator locates it in Panay, and Colin in Leyte, between Abuyog and Cabalían—contrary to the opinion of others, who locate it in Ibabao, or south of Samar. But according to other documents of that period, there is no island by that name, but a chief called Tendaya, lord of a village situated in that district; and, as the Spaniards did not understand the Indians well at that time, many contradictions thus arose in the relations of that period. We see that, in Legazpi's expedition, while the Spaniards talked of islands, the Indians talked of a man, etc. After looking for Tandaya for ten days they had to continue without finding it "and we passed on without seeing Tandaya or Abuyo." It appears, nevertheless, that the Spaniards continued to give this name to the southwestern part of Samar, calling the southeastern part Ibabao or Zibabao and the northern part of the same island Samar.
***
Morga: The first island conquered and colonized by the Spaniards was Sebu.
Rizal: Sugbú, in the dialect of the country.
***
Morga: However, the winter and rainy season begins earlier in some provinces than in others.
Rizal: Morga considers the rainy season as winter, and the rest of the year as summer. However this is not very exact, for at Manila, in December, January, and February, the thermometer is lower than in the months of August and September. Consequently, in its seasons it is like those of España and those of all the rest of the northern hemisphere.
***
Morga: The natives of the other provinces of this island as far as Cagayan are of the same nature and disposition, except that it has been learned by tradition that those of Manila and its vicinity were not natives of this island, but came thither in the past and colonized it; and that they are Malay natives, and come from other islands and remote provinces.
Rizal: The ancient traditions made Sumatra the original home of the Filipino Indians. These traditions, as well as the mythology and genealogies mentioned by the ancient historians, were entirely lost, thanks to the zeal of the religious in rooting out every national pagan or idolatrous record. With respect to the ethnology of the Filipinas, see Professor Blumentritt's very interesting work, Versuch einer Etnographie der Philippinen (Gotha, Justus Perthes, 1882).
***
Morga: The apparel and clothing of these natives of Luzon before the entrance of the Spaniards into the country were generally, for the men, certain short collarless garments of cangan, sewed together in the front, and with short sleeves, and reaching slightly below the waist; some were blue and others black, while the chiefs had some red ones, called chinanas.
Rizal: We do not know the origin of this word, which does not seem to be derived from China. If we may make a conjecture, we will say that perhaps a poor phonetic transcription has made chinina from the word tininã (from tinã) which in Tagál signifies teñido ["dyed stuff"], the name of this article of clothing, generally of but one color throughout. The chiefs wore these garments of a red color, which made, according to Colin, "of fine gauze from India."
***
Morga: They also wore a strip of colored cloth wrapped about the waist, and passed between the legs, so that it covered the privy parts, reaching half-way down the thigh; these are called bahaques.
Rizal: Bahag "a richly dyed cloth, generally edged with gold" among the chiefs.
***
Morga: They go with legs bare, feet unshod, and the head uncovered, wrapping a narrow cloth, called potong
Rizal: "They wrapped it in different ways, now in the Moro style, like a turban without the top part, now twisted and turned in the manner of the crown of a hat. Those who esteemed themselves valiant let the ends of the cloth, elaborately embroidered, fall down the back to the buttocks. In the color of the cloth, they showed their chieftaincy, and the device of their undertakings and prowess. No one was allowed to use the red potong until he had killed at least one man. And in order to wear them edged with certain edgings, which were regarded as a crown, they must have killed seven men" (Colin). Even now any Indian is seen to wear the balindang in the manner of the putong. Putong signifies in Tagál, "to crown" or "to wrap anything around the head."
***
Morga: Some wear strings of precious stones—cornelians and agates; and other blue and white stones, which they esteem highly.
Rizal: "They also have strings of bits of ivory" (Colin).
***
Morga: They wear around the legs some strings of these stones, and certain cords, covered with black pitch in many foldings, as garters.
Rizal: "The last complement of the gala dress was, in the manner of our sashes, a richly dyed shawl crossed at the shoulder and fastened under the arm" (even today the men wear the lambong or mourning garment in this manner) "which was very usual with them. The Bisayans, in place of this, wore robes or loose garments, well made and collarless, reaching to the instep, and embroidered in colors. All their costume, in fact, was in the Moorish manner, and was truly elegant and rich; and even today they consider it so" (Colin).
***
Morga: On the skull they have a huge lock of loose hair.
Rizal: This manner of headdress, and the long robe of the Visayans, have an analogy with the Japanese coiffure and kimono.
***
Morga: The women throughout this island wear small jackets [sayuelos] with sleeves of the same kinds of cloth and of all colors, called varos.
Rizal: Barõ.
***
Morga: All are very careful of their teeth, which from a very early age they file and render even, with stones and iron.
Rizal: This custon still exists.
***
Morga: They dye them a black color, which is lasting, and which preserves their teeth until they are very old, although it is ugly to look at.
Rizal: This custom exists also among the married women of Japan, as a sign of their chastity. It is now falling into disuse.
***
Morga: They quite generally bathe the entire body in the rivers and creeks, both young and old, without reflecting that it could at any time be injurious to them;
Rizal: The Filipinos were careful not to bathe at the hour of the siesta, after eating, during the first two days of a cold, when they have the herpes, and some women during the period of menstruation.
***
Morga: They pound the rice for eating...
Rizal: This work, although not laborious, is generally performed now by the men, while the women do only the actual cleaning of the rice.
***
Morga: The women walk ahead and their female servants and slaves follow them; behind these walk their husbands, fathers, or brothers, with their man-servants and slaves.
Rizal: This custom is still to be seen in some parts.
***
Morga: Their ordinary food is rice pounded in wooden mortars, and cooked—this is called morisqueta,
Rizal: A name given it by the Spaniards. Its Tagál name is kanin.
***
Morga: Meat and fish they relish better when it has begun to spoil and when it stinks.
Rizal: The fish mentioned by Morga is not tainted, but is the bagoong.
***
Morga: Drawing off the tuba,
Rizal: From the Tagál tubã, meaning sap or juice.
***
Morga: As a consequence, they generally become intoxicated without this vice being regarded as a dishonor or disgrace.
Rizal: The Filipinos have reformed in this respect, due perhaps to the wine-monopoly. Colin says that those intoxicated by this wine were seldom disagreeable or dangerous, but rather more witty and sprightly; nor did they show any ill effects from drinking it.
***
Morga: They have two cutting edges, and are kept in wooden scabbards, or those of buffalo-horn, admirably wrought.
Rizal: This weapon has been lost, and even its name is gone. A proof of the decline into which the present Filipinos have fallen is the comparison of the weapons that they manufacture now, with those described to us by the historians. The hilts of the talibones now are not of gold or ivory, nor are their scabbards of horn, nor are they admirably wrought.
***
Morga: Now they put many of them together with iron nails instead of the wooden pegs and the joints in the planks, while the helms and bows have beaks like Castilian boats.
Rizal: The Filipinos, like the inhabitants of the Marianas—who are no less skilful and dexterous in navigation—far from progressing, have retrograded; since, although boats are now built in the islands, we might assert that they are all after European models. The boats that held one hundred rowers to a side and thirty soldiers have disappeared. The country that once, with primitive methods, built ships of about 2,000 toneladas, today [1890] has to go to foreign ports, as Hong-Kong, to give the gold wrenched from the poor, in exchange for unserviceable cruisers. The rivers are blocked up, and navigation in the interior of the islands is perishing, thanks to the obstacles created by a timid and mistrusting system of government; and there scarcely remains in the memory anything but the name of all that naval architecture. It has vanished, without modern improvements having come to replace it in such proportion as, during the past centuries, has occurred in adjacent countries….
***
Morga: For the hulls of the ships, the keels, futtock-timbers, top-timbers, and any other kinds of supports and braces, compass-timbers, transoms, knees small and large, and rudders, all sorts of good timber are easily found; as well as good planking for the sides, decks, and upper-works, from very suitable woods.
Rizal: It seems that some species of trees disappeared or became very scarce because of the excessive ship-building that took place later. One of them is the betis.
***
Morga: The cattle are bred from those of China and Nueva España.
Rizal: So many cattle were raised that Father Gaspar de San Agustin, when speaking of Dumangas, says: "In this convent we have a large ranch for the larger cattle, of so many cows that they have at times numbered more than thirty, thousand … and likewise this ranch contains many fine horses."
***
Morga: Some of these fowls are black in feather, skin, flesh, and bones, and are pleasant to the taste.
Rizal: To the flesh of this fowl, called in Tagál ulikbâ, are attributed medicinal virtues.
***
Morga: Consequently there are none of these animals, for the climate and pasturage has not as yet seemed suitable for them.
Rizal: These animals now [1890] exist in the islands, but are held in small esteem.
***
Morga: The daily feed of the horses consists throughout the year of green provender, besides rice in the husk, which keeps them very fat.
Rizal: At that time the name for zacate (hay).
***
Morga: There are many turtle-doves, ring-doves; other doves with an extremely green plumage, and red feet and beaks; and others that are white with a red spot on the breast, like a pelican. Instead of quail, there are certain birds resembling them, but smaller, which are called povos
Rizal: Pogos, from the Tagál pugô.
***
Morga: They do not rear peacocks, rabbits, or hares, although they have tried to do so. It is believed that the wild animals in the forests and fields eat and destroy them, namely, the cats, foxes, badgers, and large and small rats, which are very numerous, and other land animals.
Rizal: There are now domestic rabbits, and plenty of peacocks.
***
Morga: There are many good sardines, sea-eels, sea-breams (which they call bacocos), daces, skates, bicudas, tanguingues, soles, plantanos,
Rizal: Unless we are mistaken, there is a fish in the Filipinas called Pámpano.
***
Morga: ... shrimp, sea-spiders, center-fish, and all kinds of cockles, shad, white fish, and in the Tajo River of Cagayan
Rizal: The Río Grande.
***
Morga: It is thirty leguas in circumference, and has an uninhabited island in its middle, where game abounds.
Rizal: The island of Talim.
***
Morga: They like them better than large fish. It is called laulau among them.
Rizal: The fish now called lawlaw is the dry, salted sardine. The author evidently alludes to the tawilis of Batangas, or to the dilis, which is still smaller, and is used as a staple by the natives.
***
Morga: Instead of olives and other pickled fruit, they have a green fruit, like walnuts, which they call paos.
Rizal: Pahõ. A species of very small mango from one and one-half to five centimeters in its longer diameter. It has a soft pit, and exhales a strong pitchy odor.
***
Morga: There are also quantities of cachumba
Rizal: In Tagál this is kasubhã. It comes from the Sanskrit kasumbha, or Malay kasumba (Pardo de Tavera's El Sanscrito en la lengua tagalog).
***
Morga: This is made from a tree,
Rizal: Not a tree, but a climber. The plants are cultivated by training them about some canes planted in the middle of certain little channels which serve to convey irrigation to the plant twice each day. A plantation of betel—or ikmó, as the Tagáls call it—much resembles a German hop-garden.
***
Morga: The fruit resembles an oak acorn, and is white inside.
Rizal: This fruit is not that of the betel or buyo, but of the bonga (Tagál buñga), or areca palm.
***
Morga: With the bonga is thrown in a powder of quick lime.
Rizal: Not quicklime, but well slaked lime.
***
Morga: There is a lizard, commonly found in the houses, somewhat dark-green in color, one palmo long, and as thick as three fingers, which is called chacon.
Rizal: Tagál, tukõ.
***
Morga: However, since the advent of the Spaniards in the land, the natives proceed more slowly in this, and content themselves with what they already possess in jewels and gold ingots, handed down from antiquity and inherited from their ancestors.
Rizal: The Indians, upon seeing that wealth excited the rapacity of the encomenderos and soldiers, abandoned the working of the mines, and the religious historians assert that they counseled them to a similar action in order to free them from annoyances. Nevertheless, according to Colin (who was "informed by well-disposed natives") more than 100,000 pesos of gold annually, conservatively stated, was taken from the mines during his time, after eighty years of abandonment. According to "a manuscript of a grave person who had lived long in these islands" the first tribute of the two provinces of Ilocos and Pangasinan alone amounted to 109,500 pesos. A single encomendero, in 1587, sent 3,000 taheles of gold in the "Santa Ana," which was captured by Cavendish.
***
Morga: [283]
Rizal: This was prohibited later.
***
Morga: Afterward he brought it out and sold it by the ounce at a higher rate.
Rizal: "Not many years ago," says Colin (1663), "a large piece [of ambergris] was found in the island of Joló, that weighed more than eight arrobas, of the best kind, namely, the gray."
***
Morga: They also capture and cage some of them, which are sold in the islands at very low prices.
Rizal: This industry must now be forgotten, for it is never heard of.
***
Morga: Other cloths, called medriñaques, are woven from the banana leaf.
Rizal: Perhaps Morga alludes to the sinamay, which was woven from abaká, or filament of the plant Musa textilis. The abaká is taken from the trunk and not the leaf.
***
Morga: Most of them cultivate the soil, but some are engaged in gold-washing, and in trading between various islands, and with the mainland of Luzon, very near those islands.
Rizal: The men of these islands were excellent carpenters and ship-builders. "They make many very light vessels, which they take through the vicinity for sale in a very curious manner. They build a large vessel, undecked, without iron nail or any fastening. Then, according to the measure of its hull, they make another vessel that fits into it. Within that they put a second and a third. Thus a large biroco contains ten or twelve vessels, called biroco, virey, barangay, and binitan." These natives were "tattooed, and were excellent rowers and sailors; and although they are upset often, they never drown." The women are very masculine. "They do not drink from the rivers, although the water is very clear, because it gives them nausea…. The women's costumes are chaste and pretty, for they wear petticoats in the Bisayan manner, of fine medriñaque, and lamboncillos, which resemble close-fitting sayuelos [i.e., woolen shifts worn by certain classes of religious]. They wear long robes of the same fine medriñaque. They gather the hair, which is neatly combed, into a knot, on top of the head, and place a rose in it. On their forehead they wear a band of very fine wrought gold, two fingers wide. It is very neatly worked and on the side encircling the head it is covered with colored taffeta. In each ear they wear three gold earrings, one in the place where Spanish women wear them, and two higher up. On their feet they wear certain coverings of thin brass, which sound when they walk." (The citations herein are from Colin.) These islands have also retrograded.
***
Morga: This province contains many settlements of natives, and considerable quantities of rice, fruits, fish, meat, and other foods.
Rizal: This province had decreased so greatly in population and agriculture, a half century later, that Gaspar de San Agustin said: "Now it no longer has the population of the past, because of the insurrection of that province, when Don Sabiniano Manrique de Lara was governor of these islands, and because of the incessant cutting of the timber for the building of his Majesty's ships, which prevents them from cultivating their extremely fertile plain." Later, when speaking of Guagua or Wawà, he says: "This town was formerly very wealthy because of its many chiefs, and because of the abundant harvests gathered in its spacious plains, which are now submerged by the water of the sea."
***
Morga: There is another good port called Ybalon,
Rizal: Now the port of Sorsogón.
***
Morga: On the coasts of Pangasinan, Ylocos, and Cagayan, there are some ports and bars, where ships can enter and remain, such as the harbor of Marihuma,
Rizal: Now the port of Mariveles (?).
***
Morga: the port E1 Frayle ["the friar"]
Rizal: Subik (?).
***
Morga: All of the settlements abound in rice, food, and gold-placers, and all kinds of game and timber.
Rizal: Mindoro is at present [1890] so depopulated that the minister of the Colonies, in order to remedy this result of Spanish colonization, wishes to send there the worst desperadoes of the peninsula, to see if great criminals will make good colonists and farmers. All things considered, given the condition of those who go, it is indubitable that the race that succeeds must know how to defend itself and live, so that the island may not be depopulated again.
***
Morga: The cape of Espiritu Santo, which is sighted by ships entering the Filipinas Islands on the way from Nueva España, is in an island called Tendaya,
Rizal: Samar. This proves contrary to the opinion of Colin, who places Tendaya in Leite.
***
Morga: Those of most renown are Leite, Ybabao,
Rizal: Southeastern part of Samar.
***
Morga: Their bodies are tattooed with many designs, but the face is not touched.
Rizal: Colin says, however, that they did tattoo the chins and about the eyes [barbas y cejas]. The same author states also that the tattooing was done little by little and not all at once. "The children were not tattooed, but the women tattooed one hand and part of the other. In this island of Manila the Ilocos also tattooed themselves, although not so much as did the Visayans." The Negritos, Igorrotes, and other independent tribes of the Filipinas still tattoo themselves. The Christians have forgotten the practice. The Filipinas used only the black color, thus differing from the Japanese, who employ different colors, as red and blue, and carry the art to a rare perfection. In other islands of the Pacific, the women tattoo themselves almost as much as the men. Dr. Wilhelm Joest's Tätowiren Narbenzeichnen und Körperbemahlen (Berlin, 1887) treats the matter very succinctly.
***
Morga: Both men and women go naked and without any coverings,
Rizal: This is a confused statement, after what just precedes it and according to the evidence of Father Chirino (see VOL. XII, chapter vii). Morga must mean that they wore no cloak or covering when they went outside the house, as did the Tagáls (both men and women), who used a kind of cape.
***
Morga: These Visayans are a race less inclined to agriculture, and are skilful in navigation, and eager for war and raids for pillage and booty, which they call mangubas.
Rizal: Gûbat, grove, field, in Tagál. Mangubat [so printed in the text of Rizal's edition] signifies in Tagál "to go hunting, or to the wood," or even "to fight."
***
Morga: Panay is a large island, more than one hundred leguas in circumference, containing many native settlements.
Rizal: "At the arrival of the Spaniards at this island (Panay)" says San Agustín, "it was said to have more than 50,000 families. But they decreased greatly … and at present it has about 14,000 tributarios—6,000 apportioned to the crown, and 8,000 to individual encomenderos." They had many gold-mines, and obtained gold by washing the sand in the Panay River; "but instigated by the outrages received from the alcaldes-mayor," says the same historian, "they have ceased to dig it, preferring to live in poverty than to endure such troubles."
***
Morga: The language of Luzon and those islands in its vicinity differs widely from that of the Bicayas.
Rizal: This difference is no greater than that between the Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian.
***
Morga: There is little adornment and finery in the houses, which are called bahandin.
Rizal: Báhay is "house" in Tagál; pamamáhay is that which is in the interior and the house. Bahandin may be a misprint for bahayín, an obsolete derivative.
***
Morga: Such were all regarded as nobles, and as persons exempt from the services rendered by the others, or the plebeians, who were called timaguas.
Rizal: Timawá.
***
Morga: It has happened that the chiefs have made perpetual slaves of persons who have gone by them, while bathing in the river, or who have raised their eyes to look at them less respectfully and for other similar causes.
Rizal: The condition of these slaves was not always a melancholy one. Argensola says that they ate at the same table with their masters, and married into their families. The histories fail to record the assassination for motives of vengeance of any master or chief by the natives, as they do of encomenderos. After the conquest the evil deepened. The Spaniards made slaves without these pretexts, and without those enslaved being Indians of their jurisdiction—going moreover, to take them away from their own villages and islands. Fernando de los Rios Coronel, in his memorial to the king (Madrid, 1621) pp. 24-25, speaks in scathing terms of the cruelties inflicted on the natives in the construction of ships during the governorship of Juan de Silva. A letter from Felipe II to Bishop Domingo de Salazar shows the awful tyranny exercised by the encomenderos upon the natives, whose condition was worse than that of slaves.
***
Morga: However, they agreed in most, and in all the islands generally the same usages were followed.
Rizal: This fundamental agreement of laws, and this general uniformity, prove that the mutual relations of the islands were widespread, and the bonds of friendship more frequent than were wars and quarrels. There may have existed a confederation, since we know from the first Spaniards that the chief of Manila was commander-in-chief of the sultan of Borneo. In addition, documents of the twelfth century that exist testify the same thing.
***
Morga: The slaves were of several classes. Some were for all kinds of work and slavery, like those which we ourselves hold. Such are called saguiguilires;
Rizal: This word must be sagigilid in its Tagál form. The root gílid signifies in Tagál, "margin," "strand," or "shore." The reduplication of the first syllable, if tonic, signifies active future action. If not tonic and the suffix an be added, it denotes the place where the action of the verb is frequently executed. The preposition sa indicates place, time, reference. The atonic reduplication may also signify plurality, in which case the singular noun would be sagílid, i.e., "at the margin," or "the last"—that is, the slave. Timawá signifies now in Tagál, "in peace, in quietness, tranquil, free," etc. Maginoo, from the root ginoo, "dignity," is now the title of the chiefs; and the chief's reunion is styled kaginoóhan. Colin says, nevertheless, that the Chiefs used the title gat or lakan, and the women dayang. The title of mama applied now to men, corresponds to "uncle," "Señor," "Monsieur," "Mr.," etc.; and the title al of women to the feminine titles corresponding to these.
***
Morga: Consequently all these slaveries have violent and unjust beginnings; and most of the suits among the natives are over these, and they occupy the judges in the exterior court with them, and their confessors in that of conscience.
Rizal: This class of slavery still exists [1890] in many districts, especially in the province of Batangas; but it must be admitted that their condition is quite different from that of the slave in Greece or Rome, or that of the negro, and even of those made slaves formerly by the Spaniards. Thanks to their social condition and to their number in that time, the Spanish domination met very little resistance, while the Filipino chiefs easily lost their independence and liberty. The people, accustomed to the yoke, did not defend the chiefs from the invader, nor attempt to struggle for liberties that they never enjoyed. For the people, it was only a change of masters. The nobles, accustomed to tyrannize by force, had to accept the foreign tyranny, when it showed itself stronger than their own. Not encountering love or elevated feelings in the enslaved mass, they found themselves without force or power.
***
Morga: They considered one woman, whom they married, as the legitimate wife and the mistress of the house; and she was styled ynasaba.
Rizal: Inasawa, or more correctly asawa (consort).
***
Morga: The solemnity of the marriage consisted in nothing more than the agreement between the parents and relatives of the contracting parties, the payment of the dowry agreed upon to the father of the bride,
Rizal: This dowry, if one may call it so, represented to the parents an indemnity for the care and vigilance that they had exercised in their daughter's education. The Filipina woman, never being a burden to any one (either to her parents or to her husband), but quite the contrary, represents a value, whose loss to the possessor must be substituted…. The Tagál wife is free, and treated with consideration; she trades and contracts, almost always with the approbation of her husband, who consults her in all his acts. She takes care of the money, and educates the children, half of whom belong to her…
***
Morga: At such a time the man took the dowry (which they call vigadicaya),
Rizal: Bigay-káya, "to give what one can," "a voluntary offering, a present of good will" … This bigay-káya devolved entire to the married couple, according to Colin, if the son-in-law was obedient to his parents-in-law; if not, it was divided among all the heirs. "Besides the dowry, the chiefs used to give certain gifts to the parents and relatives, and even to the slaves, which were great or less according to the rank of the one married." (Colin).
***
Morga: Thereupon he remained in his house and care, and had a right to inherit with the other children.
Rizal: This good custom still exists, … although it is gradually passing away.
***
Morga: The debt doubled and increased all the time while payment was delayed, until it stripped the debtor of all his possessions, and he and his children, when all their property was gone, became slaves.
Rizal: This condition of affairs and the collection of usury is true still [1890]. Morga's words prove true not only of the Indian, but also of the mestizos, the Spaniards, and even of various religious. So far has it gone that the government itself not only permits it, but also exacts the capital and even the person to pay the debts of others, as happens with the cabeza de barangay [head of a barangay].
***
Morga: These bells they regard as precious jewels; they resemble large pans and are very sonorous.
Rizal: The tam-tam and the pum-piang are still used.
***
Morga: Especially were thefts punished with greater severity, the robbers being enslaved or sometimes put to death.
Rizal: The early Filipinos had a great horror of theft, and even the most anti-Filipino historian could not accuse them of being a thievish race. Today, however, they have lost their horror of that crime. One of the old Filipino methods of investigating theft was as follows: "If the crime was proved, but not the criminal, if more than one was suspected … each suspect was first obliged to place a bundle of cloth, leaves, or whatever he wished on a pile, in which the thing stolen might be hidden. Upon the completion of this investigation if the stolen property was found in the pile, the suit ceased." The Filipinos also practiced customs very similar to the "judgments of God" of the middle ages, such as putting suspected persons, by pairs, under the water and adjudging guilty him who first emerged.
***
Morga: These were pardoned less willingly and with greater difficulty than was personal violence, such as wounding and assaulting.
Rizal: The Filipino today prefers a beating to scoldings or insults.
***
Morga: Single men are called bagontaos,
Rizal: From bago, new, and tao, man: he who has become a man.
***
Morga: These they kept in caves and private houses, where they offered them perfumes and odors, and food and fruit, calling them anitos.
Rizal: It appears that the natives called anito a tutelary genius, either of the family, or extraneous to it. Now, with their new religious ideas, the Tagáls apply the term anito to any superstition, false worship, idol, etc.
***
Morga: There were no temples throughout those islands, nor houses generally used for the worship of idols; but each person possessed and made in his house his own anitos,
Rizal: Others besides Morga mention oratories in caves, where the idols were kept, and where aromatics were burned in small brasiers. Chirino found small temples in Taitay adjoining the principal houses. [See VOL. XII. of this series, chapter xxi.] It appears that temples were never dedicated to bathala maykapal, nor was sacrifice ever offered him. The temples dedicated to the anito were called ulañgo.
***
Morga: But they did not know how or where this would be.
Rizal: San Agustín says that hell was called solad, and paradise, kalualhatian (a name still in existence), and in poetical language, ulugan. The blest abodes of the inhabitants of Panay were in the mountain of Madias.
***
Morga: Their funeral rites did not consist of pomp or assemblages, beyond those of their own house—where, after bewailing the dead, all was changed into feasting and drunken revelry among all the relatives and friends.
Rizal: In the Filipino burials, there were mourners who composed panegyrics in honor of the dead, like those made today. "To the sound of this sad music the corpse was washed, and perfumed with storax, gum-resin, or other perfumes made from tree gums, which are found in all these woods. Then the corpse was shrouded, being wrapped in more or less cloth according to the rank of the deceased. The bodies of the more wealthy were anointed and embalmed in the manner of the Hebrews, with aromatic liquors, which preserved them from decay…. The burial-place of the poor was in pits dug in the ground under their own houses. After the bodies of the rich and powerful were kept and bewailed for three days, they were placed in a chest or coffin of incorruptible wood, adorned with rich jewels, and with small sheets of gold in the mouth and over the eyes. The coffin was all in one piece, and the lid was so adjusted that no air could enter. Because of these precautions the bodies have been found after many years, still uncorrupted. These coffins were deposited in one of three places, according to the inclination and arrangement of the deceased, either on top of the house among the treasures … or underneath it, but raised from the ground; or in the ground itself, in an open hole surrounded with a small railing … nearby they were wont to place another box filled with the best clothes of the deceased; and at meal-time they set various articles of food there in dishes. Beside the men were laid their weapons, and beside the women their looms or other implements of work" (Colin).
***
Morga: Already a considerable number, and those the chiefest men, were commencing, although by piecemeal, to become Moros, and were being circumcised
Rizal: This custom has not fallen into disuse among the Filipinos, even among the Catholics.
***
Morga: He gave sites for the monasteries,
Rizal: Convents occupy almost one-third part of the walled city.
***
Morga: It has small towers and traverses at intervals.
Rizal: The walls did not even have any moats then; these were dug after the English invasion of 1762. The walls were also rearranged at that time, and perfected with the lapse of time and the needs that arose in the city.
***
Morga: In the morning when day comes, the patrols return with the keys and open the city.
Rizal: Now [1890] the gates of the city are open all night, and in certain periods, passage along the streets and through the walls is allowed at all hours.
***
Morga: Near these arsenals is located the powder-house, with its master, workmen, and convicts, where powder is generally ground in thirty mortars, and that which is spoiled is refined.
Rizal: This powder-mill has several times changed its site. It was afterward near Maalat on the seashore, and then was moved to Nagtahá, on the bank of the Pasig.
***
Morga: The building for the founding of artillery is located on a suitable site in another part of the city. It has its molds, ovens, and tools, founders, and workmen who work it.
Rizal: Probably on the same site where the great Tagál cannon-foundry had formerly stood, which was burned and destroyed by the Spaniards at their first arrival in Manila. San Agustin declares the Tagál foundry to have been as large as that at Málaga.
***
Morga: Opposite, on the other side of the street, is another edifice for the royal treasury and those in charge of it.
Rizal: The treasury building. The governor's palace was destroyed in 1863.
***
Morga: They are very sightly and have handsome halls. On the ground floor is the prison, and the court of the alcaldes-in-ordinary.
Rizal: The Audiencia and cabildo buildings were also destroyed, but the latter has been rebuilt.
***
Morga: Within the city is the monastery of St. Augustine. It is very large and has many dormitories, a refectory and kitchens. They are now completing a church, which is one of the most sumptuous in those districts. This convent has generally fifty religious.
Rizal: This is the largest convent in Manila.
***
Morga: These students wear gowns of tawny-colored frieze with red facings.
Rizal: This college of San José was founded in 1601, although the royal decree for it had been conceded in 1585. The number of collegiates to enter was thirteen, among whom was a nephew of Francisco Tello and a son of Dr. Morga. From its inception Latin was taught there. In a suit with the College of Santo Tomás, the Jesuits obtained a favorable decision; and it was recognized as the older institution, and given the preference in public acts. The historians say that at its inauguration the students wore bonnets covered with diamonds and pearls. At present [1890] this college, after having moved from house to house, has become a school of pharmacy attached to Santo Tomás, and directed by the Dominican rector.
***
Morga: They have their own steward and their priest, who administers the sacraments to them.
Rizal: After many varying fortunes, this institution has wholly disappeared.
***
Morga: It was founded in the city of Manila by the Confraternity of La Misericordia of Lisboa, and by the other confraternities of India.
Rizal: The Confraternity of Mercy [Hermandad de la Misericordia] was founded in 1594, by an ecclesiastic named Juan Fernández de León.
***
Morga: Next to the monastery of St. Francis is located the hospital for natives,
Rizal: San Juan de Dios [St. John of God].
***
Morga: Thence it passes through a native street and settlement, called Bagunbayan, to a chapel, much frequented by the devout, called Nuestra Señora de Guia, and continues for a goodly distance further to a monastery and mission-house of the Augustinians, called Mahalat.
Rizal: Better, Maalat. The Spaniards pronounced this later Malate. There lived the chief Tagáls after they were deprived of their houses in Manila, among whom were the families of Raja Matanda and Raja Soliman. San Augustín says that even in his day many of the ancient nobility dwelt there, and that they where very urbane and cultured. "The Men hold various positions in Manila, and certain occupations in some of the local public functions. The women make excellent lace, in which they are so skilfull that the Dutch women cannot surpass them." This is still true of the women.
***
Morga: The other drive extends through one of the city gates to a native settlement, called Laguio, by which one may go to a chapel of San Anton, and to a monastery and mission-house of discalced Franciscans, a place of great devotion, near the city, called La Candelaria.
Rizal: Now the town of Paco.
***
Morga: There is a royal treasury with three royal officials—factor, accountant, and treasurer—by whom the royal revenue of all the islands is managed.
Rizal: This is so changed now [1890] and the employees so increased in number, that the annual expenses amount to more than 2,000,000 pesos, while the intendant's salary is 12,000 pesos.
***
Morga: In the province [of Cagayán] of this same island of Luzon was founded the city of Segovia,
Rizal: This city has disapeared from the map and from the earth. An inconsiderable town named Lal-ló occupies its site. It is still [1890], however, named as the appointment of the bishopric of Bigan, the actual residence of the bishop.
***
Morga: The town of Arevalo was founded on the island of Oton [Panay], during the term of Don Gonçalo Ronquillo.
Rizal: Now [1890] of slight importance. Of its former grandeur there remain only 1,000 inhabitants, with a parochial house, a justice's house, a prison, and a primary school.
***
Morga: The settlement of Villa Fernandina,
Rizal: Vigan or Bigan.
***
Morga: Thus, finding the harvest in good season, they gathered the first fruits of it, and converted and baptized many infidels throughout the said islands.
Rizal: Legazpi also had two secular priests, Juan de Vivero and Juan de Villanueva, who had part in the first conversions.
***
Morga: Next to them in the fame of this conversion, the discalced religious of the Order of St. Francis went to the islands by way of Nueva España; then those of the Order of St. Dominic, and of the Society of Jesus.
Rizal: The Jesuits preceded the Dominicans seven years as missionaries to the Filipinas. The first Jesuits came over with Domingo de Salazar, the first bishop, and his Dominican associate.
***
Morga: But now that there are an archbishop and bishops, this is being curtailed, and the management of these affairs is being given to the bishops, as the archbishop's vicars—although not to such an extent, nor has the administration of these natives been placed in their charge, in matters of justice, and under the inspection and superintendence of the bishops, as they have endeavored to obtain.
Rizal: Morga refers, with his characteristic prudence, to the great question of diocesan visits, which commenced with Fray Domingo de Salazar, and which could not be ended until 1775, in the time of Anda—thanks to the energy of the latter and the courage of Archbishop Don Basilio Sancho de Santa Justa y Rufina, when after great disturbances they succeeded in subjecting the regular curas to the inspection of the bishops. Morga, however, shows that he did not approve the claims of the religious to independence, but does not dare to state so distinctly.
***
Morga: The governor and royal Audiencia of Manila attend to what it is advisable to provide and direct for the greatest accomplishment and advancement of this conversion, and the administration of the natives and their missions—both by causing the encomenderos to assist the religious and churches, in the encomiendas that they enjoy, with the stipends and necessary expenses of the missions; and by furnishing from the royal revenues what pertains to it, which is no less a sum.
Rizal: The Augustinians received also one-fourth part of the tribute from the villages while they were building churches; and 200 pesos fuertes [i.e., ten-real pieces] and 200 cavans [the cavan equals 25 gantas, or 137 Spanish libras] of cleaned rice for four religious who heard confessions during Lent. Fifty cavans of cleaned rice per person seems to us too much. It results that each friar consumes 12 1/2 libras of rice or 27 chupas [the chupa is 1/8 ganta or 3 litros] daily, thirteen times as much as any Indian.
***
Morga: He and his constables who are called vilangos
Rizal: Bilangõ signifies today in Tagál "the act of imprisoning," and bilanguan "the prison."
***
Morga: This governor, in addition to the vilangos and scrivener (before whom he makes his acts in writing, in the language of the natives of that province),
Rizal: These are now [1890] made in Spanish.
***
Morga: There are many very excellent encomiendas throughout the islands, and they offer many profits, both by the amount of their tributes and by the nature and value of what is paid as tribute.
Rizal: The rapidity with which many of these encomenderos amassed great wealth in a few years is known, and that they left colossal fortunes at their death. Some were not satisfied with the tributes and with what they demanded, but made false measures, and balances that weighed twice as much as was indicated. They often exacted the tributes in certain products only, and appraised the same at what value they wished.
***
Morga: These are done in different ways, and are commonly called the polo.
Rizal: This [1890] has disappeared from legislation, although the personal services for España are still continued, and are fifteen days.
***
Morga: In the same way natives are assigned and apportioned for the king's works, such as the building of ships, the cutting of wood, the trade of making the rigging,
Rizal: Taal was one of the villages where the most rigging was made for the royal ships.
***
Morga: The archbishop of Manila, who resides in the city, as metropolitan, in charge of his cathedral church; he has a salary of four thousand pesos,
Rizal: In 1890 he received 12,000 pesos.
***
Morga: The archbishop's office and jurisdiction consists of and extends to all, both the spiritual and temporal, that is ecclesiastic, and to its management.
Rizal: In 1890 the Filipinas were paying 36,670 pesos annually for one dean, four dignitarios, five canons, four racioneros, four medio-racioneros, and other inferior helpers, including the choir, a total of twenty-six individuals; 3,330 pesos annually is to be added for sacristans, singers, and orchestra.
***
Morga: At present the bishops do not possess churches with prebendaries nor is any money set aside for that.
Rizal: Their salary amounted to from 750 to 1,000 pesos. Now [1890] the salary of each bishop is 6,000 pesos, with two father assistants at 100 to 150 pesos per month.
***
Morga: The Dominicans and Franciscans do not possess or allow incomes or properties;
Rizal: All of the orders held property and had regular means of revenue, later; while the Dominicans held enormous property in both the islands and at Hong Kong.
***
Morga: ... when there is lack of convicts, good rowers are obtained from the natives for pay, for the period of the expedition and the occasion of the voyage.
Rizal: The pay of various of the above officers and men in 1890 was as follows: Filipino infantrymen, 4 pesos per month; Spanish artillerymen, 13-15 pesos, plus some céntimos, per month; Filipino artillerymen, 4 pesos, plus some céntimos, per month; captains, 1,500-1,800 pesos per year; alféreces, 975-1,050 pesos per year; first sergeants, European, 318-360 pesos per year—native, 180 pesos per year; second sergeants, European, 248.06-307.50 pesos per year—native, 156 pesos per year; first corporals, European, 189.56-202 pesos per year—native, 84 pesos per year; second corporals, European, 174-192 pesos per year—native corporals, 72 pesos per year; the segundo cabo [lieutenant-commander], 12,000 pesos per year; sargento-mayor de plaza (now lieutenant-colonel), 225 pesos per month; vice-admiral [contra-almirante, general de galeras], 16,392 pesos per year; frigate and ship captains, 2,700-5,760 pesos per year, according to their duties and grades.
***
Morga: Through the very great increase of this trade—which was harmful and prejudicial to the Spanish merchants who shipped goods to Peru and Nueva España, and to the royal duties collected on the shipments from España—and through the business men of Mexico and Peru having become greedy of trade and commerce with the Filipinas, by means of their agents and factors, so that the trade with España was ceasing in great measure, and the merchants were sending to the Filipinas for their investments great consignments of silver, which by that means flowed yearly from his Majesty's kingdoms, to fall into the possession of infidels: all persons of Nueva España and Peru were prohibited from trading and engaging in commerce in the Filipinas, and from taking the Chinese merchandise to those regions.
Rizal: Bañuelos y Carrillo, in his relation to the king, says: "That the inhabitants of the Manilas should be allowed to export as many boat-loads as possible of the country's produce—such as wax, gold, perfumes, ivory, and cotton cloth [lampotes]—which they must buy from the natives of the country, who would thus be hindered from selling them to the Dutch. In this way we would make those peoples friendly, and supply Nueva España with their merchandise; and the money taken to Manila would not leave that city. … Your Majesty should consider that one and one-half millions in gold go to China annually." This commerce was advantageous to the Celestial empire alone and to certain individuals of Manila. It was fatal to España, and harmful to the islands, whose industry was gradually perishing like that of the metropolis.
***
Morga: The Chinese furnish numberless other gewgaws and ornaments of little value and worth, which are esteemed among the Spaniards; besides a quantity of fine crockery of all kinds; canganes,
Rizal: This must be the cloth and not the porcelain of Kaga, which even today is so highly esteemed.
***
Morga: By the signal made with fire by the watchman from the said island, and the advice that he sends in all haste to the city—of what ship it is, whence it has come, what merchandise and people it brings—before the vessel has finished anchoring, the governor and the city generally know all about it.
Rizal: With very slight differences, this custom and ceremony is continued to the present [1890].
***
Morga: They value and register these goods, for they pay into the royal treasury of Manila, before the voyage, the two per cent royal duties on exports, besides the freight charges of the vessel, which amount to forty Castilian ducados
Rizal: The ducado of Castilla was worth slightly more than two pesos.
***
Morga: This latter is paid at the port of Acapulco in Nueva España, into the royal treasury of the said port, in addition to the ten per cent duties for entrance and first sale in Nueva España.
Rizal: These imposts and fetters, which the products of the country did not escape, are still [1890] in force, so that foreign markets must be sought, since the markets of the mother-country offer no greater advantages. According to a document of 1640, this commerce netted the government 350,000 pesos annually.
***
Morga: He has a salary of eight thousand pesos de minas per year for all his offices.
Rizal: The salary is now [1890] 40,000 pesos.
***
Morga: The Audiencia consists of four auditors and one fiscal—each of whom receives an annual salary of two thousand pesos de minas
Rizal: There are eight auditors now [1890], and their salary has increased to 4,700 pesos, while that of the fiscal is 5,500 pesos.
***
Morga: They collect, from one year to another, eight thousand pesos in tributes from the Sangleys—both Christians and infidels.
Rizal: The tributes of the Indians in the Filipinas amount to more than 4,000,000 pesos now [1890]; and from the Chinese are derived 225,000 pesos.
***
Morga: From one year to another they collect ten thousand pesos from these fifths, for much is concealed.
Rizal: Now since there is no exploitation of gold mines, and since the Indians have no jewels that would justify this tenth or fifth, the Spaniards substitute for this the imposts upon property, which amount to 105,400 pesos, and that upon industry, which amounts to 1,433,200 pesos. In 1640, the revenue from the above source [fifths or tenths] had decreased so greatly, that only 750 pesos were collected annually.
***
Morga: The three per cent duties on the Chinese merchandise of the Sangley vessels average forty thousand pesos annually.
Rizal: Import duties now [1890] amount to 1,700,000 pesos.
***
Morga: Consequently, in these things and in other dues of less importance that belong to the royal treasury, his Majesty receives about one hundred and fifty thousand pesos, or thereabout, annually in the Filipinas.
Rizal: Export duties now [1890] amount to 285,000 pesos.
***
Morga: Consequently, since his Majesty's revenues in these islands are so limited, and his expenses so great, the royal treasury falls short, and suffers poverty and need.
Rizal: According to Hernando de los Rios, the Filipinas Islands could have been self-sustaining from the beginning from their own products, had it not been for the expeditions and adventurous conquests in the Moluccas, Camboja, etc. … In the governorship of Don Juan de Silva, the treasury owed, for the war in the Moluccas, more than 2,000,000 pesos to the Indians, besides what it must have owed to the inhabitants of Manila.
***
Morga: Every year the Audiencia audits the accounts of the royal officials of his Majesty's revenues, strikes the balances, and sends the accounts to the tribunal of accounts in Mexico.
Rizal: This excellent custom has entirely perished.
***
Morga: Some engage in fishing and farming among the natives, throughout the country; and go from one island to another to trade, in large or small champans.
Rizal: The Chinese engaged in agriculture and fishing now [1890] are very few.
***
Morga: They wear their own costume, namely, kimonos of colored silks and cotton, reaching half way down the leg, and open in front; wide, short drawers; close-fitting half-boots of leather,
Rizal: A kind of stocking called tabi.
***
Morga: They sail west toward the islands of Las Velas,
Rizal: Thus named because seamen and voyagers noticed especially the lateen sails of the light vessels used by the natives of the Marianas.
***
Morga: At thirty-four degrees is the cape of Sestos,
Rizal: A group of islands called Shidsi To, lying in 34º 20'.
More from this series:
Rizal's Annotation of Morga's Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas: Chapter 1 of 8
Rizal's Annotation of Morga's Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas: Chapter 2 of 8
Rizal's Annotation of Morga's Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas: Chapter 3 of 8
Rizal's Annotation of Morga's Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas: Chapter 4 of 8
Rizal's Annotation of Morga's Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas: Chapter 5 of 8
Rizal's Annotation of Morga's Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas: Chapter 6 of 8
Rizal's Annotation of Morga's Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas: Chapter 7 of 8
Rizal's Annotation of Morga's Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas: Chapter 8 of 8
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